Flooring
Finish flooring is applied on top of a structural subfloor (usually OSB, plywood, or concrete). It is most often selected based on comfort, attractiveness, durability, and functionality. Functionality issues include ease of maintenance and cleaning, acoustic or insulation properties, and resistance to stains and water. Each type of finish flooring typically comes in a range of finishes, colors, and prices. The following analysis examines the relative economic, energy, and environmental impacts of the following 7 types of finish flooring: wood flooring, laminate flooring, vinyl flooring, linoleum, ceramic tile, cork, and carpet.
General Recommendations
Based on economic and environmental impacts, ceramic tile and linoleum are recommended. Although first costs are generally higher for these products, their lifetime cost, environmental impact, and durability stand out. When considering carpet, look for high recycled content and products that are recyclable. New carpet tile systems are relatively inexpensive, easy to maintain, and much more durable than past products. Sometimes flooring materials that are easier to maintain, more durable, and/or require less chemical treatment may not have appropriate acoustic or aesthetic characteristics. It is imperative to match the flooring material to the appropriate use, while also evaluating environmental performance criteria.
- Consider durability, maintenance requirements, and ease of cleaning when selecting flooring
- Choose flooring that will be serviceable through the end of the first mortgage term, usually 30 years
- Avoid products that contain PVC, which have serious impacts on the environment and human health (look for alternatives to using PVC products, such as linoleum or ceramic tile)
- If considering carpet, choose carpets that are made with recycled fiber and are manufactured by companies with recycling programs that take carpet back at the end of its service life
- To reduce VOC emissions, look for carpet that is certified CRI Green Label or Green Label Plus
Environmental Context
Interior finishes like flooring have a large impact on the indoor air quality of buildings because they often emit toxins, such as VOCs, directly to the space. In addition, the products used to maintain interior finishes often contain toxins that are also released to the indoor environment. These toxins can cause severe allergic reactions and illness. Some flooring materials, specifically residential carpets and pads, contribute substantially to landfills and increase negative impacts because they need to be replaced more frequently than hard finishes. Selecting floor finishes that are both durable and aesthetically flexible can increase the life of the product and reduce its environmental impact. In general, flooring materials with longer life spans are better for the environment because they need to be replaced less frequently.
Options and Analysis
| alternatives | installed cost/sf* | installed cost/sf/yr of life | expected product life (years) | life cycle thinking | IAQ |
| wood flooring | $7.68-9.68 | $0.139 | 25-100 | good, if solid products | potential off-gassing during installation and maintenance |
| laminate flooring | $5.50-6.65 | $0.27 | 15-30 | typical | no significant effects |
| vinyl flooring, marbelized 12" x 12" | $1.89-2.35 (low range) | $0.134 | 10-25 | typical | off-gassing during installation and maintenance |
| linoleum | $3.00-4.00 | $0.08 | 30-40 | good | off-gassing during installation and maintenance |
| ceramic tile, thin set 8" x 8" tiles | $6.61 | $0.106 | 25-100 | very good | no significant effects |
| cork flooring, standard finish 1/8" | $6.70 | $0.191 | 30-40 | good | off-gassing during installation and maintenance |
| carpet, nylon | $3.36-6.79 | $0.534 | 8-11 | typical | Off-gassing during installation and maintenance |
| carpet, wool | $13.57 | $0.493 | 25-30 | typical | Off-gassing during installation and maintenance |
*Cost information includes installation and is based on Means Cost Works 2007, except for laminate and linoleum flooring, which are based on estimates from ifloor.com and Environmental Building News.
Installed cost/yr of life does not include maintenance costs.
Cost
Flooring cost varies widely by material type and durability within a given material. For example, a $1 per square foot sheet product is generally less durable than a $2 option. A low initial cost will typically cost more over time when early replacement is considered. In terms of first cost, vinyl flooring is the least expensive material, typically between $1.89-2.35 per square foot installed. Natural linoleum is second, with first costs between $3.00-$4.00 per square foot installed. Carpet is another flooring material with low first costs, between 3.36-6.79 per square foot installed. When the expected product life of a material is factored into the costs of flooring, many of the more expensive options prove to be the most economical. Ceramic tile is the least expensive flooring material on an installed cost per year basis, at 10.0 cents per square foot per year. Linoleum also performs well, at 10.8 cents per square foot per year. Using this metric, hardwood flooring performs comparably to vinyl, with costs per square foot per year between 13.4 and 13.9 cents. (Note that this metric does not include maintenance or refinishing costs.)Expected Product Life
Hardwood flooring has the longest potential life. If properly maintained, it can achieve more than 100 years of serviceable life. Proper maintenance includes refinishing as the sealer wears. Conservative sanding during refinishing will lengthen the useful life of the boards. Ceramic tile also has a very long useful life if the grout joints are well maintained. Linoleum products have long been known as a 40-year floor. Cork flooring will also last about 40 years, but can last longer with proper maintenance. Carpets typically last the shortest amount of time, with an average life expectancy of 8-11 years for nylon fibers and 25-30 years for wool fibers. Vinyl flooring lasts 10-25 years, depending on quality of the product and intensity of use. Laminate flooring needs to be replaced after about 25 years and can likely only be refinished once.Life Cycle Thinking
Energy Consumption
Vinyls, petroleum-based carpets, and tiles use the most energy during extraction, manufacturing, transportation, use, and disposal. In general, wood products have lower embodied energy. In particular, cork flooring, although it is produced in Europe and North Africa, requires little energy over its life cycle.Pollutants Generated in Production
Vinyls produce toxins throughout their extraction, manufacturing, use, and disposal cycle. If possible, they should be avoided, even though they have the lowest first cost. Carpets, including wools, generally produce more pollutants than other floorings. Tile creates more air pollutants during its energy-intensive manufacturing process.IAQ
Floor finishes that can be cleaned with water and light detergents and need no additional coatings or waxes (tiles, some laminates, solid woods, and bamboos) produce fewer harmful indoor air emissions. These flooring materials also tend to be a hard surface, making them easier to dust. This reduces the accumulation of allergens in the indoor environment. Flooring materials that require resurfacing (wood, cork, linoleum, and vinyl) often emit VOCs during the resurfacing process and require adequate ventilation to remove those during application and curing periods. Carpets have the greatest negative impacts on indoor air quality because they accumulate dirt, dust, and allergens. They also off-gas from both their materials and from the adhesives, pads, and accessories used in their installation. If possible, it is best to have the carpet off-gas in a well-ventilated location for a minimum of 10 days prior to installation. Some recent tests indicate linoleum may off-gas significant amounts of VOCs. However, some manufacturers may now be providing a factory-applied coating which helps to eliminate off-gassing. Wood, engineered wood products, and laminate flooring should be sealed to prevent formaldehyde and other VOCs from off-gassing. Cork has no significant off-gassing issues.Future Recycling
Currently, carpets have the greatest potential for recycling because they can be removed in the largest pieces and shipped easily. Many carpet manufacturers and other entities are starting to accept recycled carpet. Cork can be ground up and reused or composted; ceramic tile can be ground up and used for fill; linoleum and wool are biodegradable. Additives and finishes contained in any of these products may minimize or prevent recycling or composting efforts.Practice
All of the flooring selections examined here are common finish flooring materials and use standard installation methods.Other Considerations
The environmental impact and cost of wood flooring can be reduced by specifying and sourcing reclaimed and hardwood floors.
